The mind illuminated pdf download

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According to legend, a very rare diamond called Jasmine's Heart was on the ship when it sank. When biology teacher Professor Van Kraken disappears, the Thea Sisters have to dive into the deep ocean to find him and the jewel. When they learned a set of complex motor skills, structural changes occurred in the motor region of the cerebral cortex and in the cerebellum, a hindbrain structure that coordinates motor activity Black et al.

These changes in brain structure underlie changes in the functional organization of the brain. That is, learning imposes new patterns of organization on the brain, and this phenomenon has been confirmed by electro-physiological recordings of the activity of nerve cells Beaulieu and Cynader, Studies of brain development provide a model of the learning process at a cellular level: the changes first observed in rats have also proved to be true in mice, cats, monkeys, and birds, and they almost certainly occur in humans.

Clearly, the brain can store information, but what kinds of information? The neuroscientist does not address these questions. Answering them is the job of cognitive scientists, education researchers, and others who study the effects of experiences on human behavior and human potential. Several examples illustrate how instruction in specific kinds of information can influence natural development processes. This section discusses a case involving language development.

Brain development is often timed to take advantage of particular experiences, such that information from the environment helps to organize the brain. The development of language in humans is an example of a natural process that is guided by a timetable with certain limiting conditions.

A phoneme is defined as the smallest meaningful unit of speech sound. Very young children discriminate many more phonemic boundaries than adults, but they lose their discriminatory powers when certain boundaries are not supported by experience with spoken language Kuhl, Native Japa-.

It is not known whether synapse overproduction and elimination underlies this process, but it certainly seems plausible. The process of synapse elimination occurs relatively slowly in the cerebral cortical regions that are involved in aspects of language and other higher cognitive functions Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, Different brain systems appear to develop according to different time frames, driven in part by experience and in part by intrinsic forces.

But, as noted above, learning continues to affect the structure of the brain long after synapse overproduction and loss are completed. There may be other changes in the brain involved in the encoding of learning, but most scientists agree that synapse addition and modification are the ones that are most certain.

Detailed knowledge of the brain processes that underlie language has emerged in recent years. For example, there appear to be separate brain areas that specialize in subtasks such as hearing words spoken language of others , seeing words reading , speaking words speech , and generating words thinking with language. Whether these patterns of brain organization for oral, written, and listening skills require separate exercises to promote the component skills of language and literacy remains to be determined.

If these closely related skills have somewhat independent brain representation, then coordinated practice of skills may be a better way to encourage learners to move seamlessly among speaking, writing, and listening. Language provides a particularly striking example of how instructional processes may contribute to organizing brain functions.

The example is interesting because language processes are usually more closely associated with the left side of the brain. As the following discussion points out, specific kinds of experiences can contribute to other areas of the brain taking over some of the language functions. For example, deaf people who learn a sign language are learning to communicate using the visual system in place of the auditory system.

Manual sign languages have grammatical structures, with affixes and morphology, but they are not translations of spoken languages. Each particular sign language such as American Sign Language.

The perception of sign language depends on parallel visual perception of shape, relative spatial location, and movement of the hands—a very different type of perception than the auditory perception of spoken language Bellugi, In the nervous system of a hearing person, auditory system pathways appear to be closely connected to the brain regions that process the features of spoken language, while visual pathways appear to go through several stages of processing before features of written language are extracted Blakemore, ; Friedman and Cocking, When a deaf individual learns to communicate with manual signs, different nervous system processes have replaced the ones normally used for language—a significant achievement.

Neuroscientists have investigated how the visual-spatial and language processing areas each come together in a different hemisphere of the brain, while developing certain new functions as a result of the visual language experiences. In the brains of all deaf people, some cortical areas that normally process auditory information become organized to process visual information.

Yet there are also demonstrable differences among the brains of deaf people who use sign language and deaf people who do not use sign language, presumably because they have had different language experiences Neville, , Among other things, major differences exist in the electrical activities of the brains of deaf individuals who use sign language and those who do not know sign language Friedman and Cocking, ; Neville, Also, there are similarities between sign language users with normal hearing and sign language users who are deaf that result from their common experiences of engaging in language activities.

In other words, specific types of instruction can modify the brain, enabling it to use alternative sensory input to accomplish adaptive functions, in this case, communication.

Another demonstration that the human brain can be functionally reorganized by instruction comes from research on individuals who have suffered strokes or had portions of the brain removed Bach-y-Rita, , ; Crill and Raichle, Since spontaneous recovery is generally unlikely, the best way to help these individuals regain their lost functions is to provide them with instruction and long periods of practice.

Although this kind of learning typically takes a long time, it can lead to partial or total recovery of functions when based on sound principles of instruction. Studies of animals with similar impairments have clearly shown the formation of new brain connections and other adjustments, not unlike those that occur when adults learn e.

Thus, guided learning and learning from individual experiences both play important roles in the functional reorganization of the brain. Research into memory processes has progressed in recent years through the combined efforts of neuroscientists and cognitive scientists, aided by positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging Schacter, Most of the research advances in memory that help scientists understand learning come from two major groups of studies: studies that show that memory is not a unitary construct and studies that relate features of learning to later effectiveness in recall.

Memory is neither a single entity nor a phenomenon that occurs in a single area of the brain. There are two basic memory processes: declarative memory, or memory for facts and events which occurs primarily in brain systems involving the hippocampus; and procedural or nondeclarative memory, which is memory for skills and other cognitive operations, or memory that cannot be represented in declarative sentences, which occurs principally in the brain systems involving the neostriatum Squire, Different features of learning contribute to the durability or fragility of memory.

The superiority effect of pictures is also true if words and pictures are combined during learning Roediger, Obviously, this finding has direct relevance for improving the long-term learning of certain kinds of information.

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They may be cropped but not otherwise modified. To download these materials, you must agree to abide by these terms. Takata Recall 0. Email Sign Up Cart. Expanding to four powertrains, including2. Media Contacts Amanda Roark amanda. Add to Cart. Sales April 01, Email Sign Up Enter your email address below to sign up for email alerts. It was sometimes objected that sensation statements are incorrigible whereas statements about brains are corrigible.

The inference was made that there must be something different about sensations. Nevertheless my sensation and my putative awareness of the sensation are distinct existences and so, by Hume's principle, it must be possible for one to occur without the other.

One should deny anything other than a relative incorrigibility Place As remarked above, Place preferred to express the theory by the notion of constitution, whereas Smart preferred to make prominent the notion of identity as it occurs in the axioms of identity in logic. So Smart had to say that if sensation X is identical to brain process Y then if Y is between my ears and is straight or circular absurdly to oversimplify then the sensation X is between my ears and is straight or circular.

Of course it is not presented to us as such in experience. Perhaps only the neuroscientist could know that it is straight or circular. The professor of anatomy might be identical with the dean of the medical school. A visitor might know that the professor hiccups in lectures but not know that the dean hiccups in lectures.

Someone might object that the dean of the medical school does not qua dean hiccup in lectures. Qua dean he goes to meetings with the vice-chancellor. This is not to the point but there is a point behind it. This is that the property of being the professor of anatomy is not identical with the property of being the dean of the medical school.

The question might be asked, that even if sensations are identical with brain processes, are there not introspected non-physical properties of sensations that are not identical with properties of brain processes? How would a physicalist identity theorist deal with this?

If you overheard only these words in a conversation you would not be able to tell whether the conversation was one of mathematics, physics, geology, history, theology, or any other subject. Thus to say that a sensation is caused by lightning or the presence of a cabbage before my eyes leaves it open as to whether the sensation is non-physical as the dualist believes or is physical as the materialist believes.

This sentence also is neutral as to whether the properties of the sensation are physical or whether some of them are irreducibly psychical. To see how this idea can be applied to the present purpose let us consider the following example. Suppose that I have a yellow, green and purple striped mental image. That is I would see or seem to see, for example, a flag or an array of lamps which is green, yellow and purple striped.

Suppose also, as seems plausible, that there is nothing yellow, green and purple striped in the brain. Thus it is important for identity theorists to say as indeed they have done that sense data and images are not part of the furniture of the world.

This move should not be seen as merely an ad hoc device, since Ryle and J. Austin, in effect Wittgenstein, and others had provided arguments, as when Ryle argued that mental images were not a sort of ghostly picture postcard. He characterizes this fallacy Place :. Of course, as Smart recognised, this leaves the identity theory dependent on a physicalist account of colour. His early account of colour was too behaviourist, and could not deal, for example, with the reversed spectrum problem, but he later gave a realist and objectivist account Smart Armstrong had been realist about colour but Smart worried that if so colour would be a very idiosyncratic and disjunctive concept, of no cosmic importance, of no interest to extraterrestrials for instance who had different visual systems.

Prompted by Lewis in conversation Smart came to realize that this was no objection to colours being objective properties. One first gives the notion of a normal human percipient with respect to colour for which there are objective tests in terms of ability to make discriminations with respect to colour. This can be done without circularity. Then Smart elucidated the notion of colour in terms of the discriminations with respect to colour of normal human percipients in normal conditions say cloudy Scottish daylight.

This account of colour may be disjunctive and idiosyncratic. Maxwell's equations might be of interest to Alpha Centaurians but hardly our colour concepts. Anthropocentric and disjunctive they may be, but objective none the less.

David R. Hilbert identifies colours with reflectances, thus reducing the idiosyncrasy and disjunctiveness. A few epicycles are easily added to deal with radiated light, the colours of rainbows or the sun at sunset and the colours due to diffraction from feathers. John Locke was on the right track in making the secondary qualities objective as powers in the object, but erred in making these powers to be powers to produce ideas in the mind rather than to make behavioural discriminations.

Also Smart would say that if powers are dispositions we should treat the secondary qualities as the categorical bases of these powers, e. Locke's view suggested that the ideas have mysterious qualia observed on the screen of an internal mental theatre. Let us return to the issue of us having a yellow, purple and green striped sense datum or mental image and yet there being no yellow, purple and green striped thing in the brain.

The identity theorist Smart can say that sense data and images are not real things in the world: they are like the average plumber. Sentences ostensibly about the average plumber can be translated into, or elucidated in terms of, sentences about plumbers. So also there is having a green sense datum or image but not sense data or images, and the having of a green sense datum or image is not itself green.

So it can, so far as this goes, easily be a brain process which is not green either. Quoting these passages, David Chalmers , p. Of course a lot of things go on in me when I have a yellow after image for example my heart is pumping blood through my brain. However they do not typically go on then: they go on at other times too. Of course to be topic neutral is to be able to be both physical and mental, just as arithmetic is. In their accounts of mind, David Lewis and D.

Armstrong emphasise the notion of causality. Lewis's was a particularly clear headed presentation of the identity theory in which he says I here refer to the reprint in Lewis , p. Similarly, Robert Kirk has argued for the impossibility of zombies. If the supposed zombie has all the behavioural and neural properties ascribed to it by those who argue from the possibility of zombies against materialism, then the zombie is conscious and so not a zombie.

Thus there is no need for explicit use of Ockham's Razor as in Smart though not in Place Words for colours, smells, sounds, tastes and so on also occur. One can regard common sense platitudes containing both these sorts of these words as constituting a theory and we can take them as theoretical terms of common sense psychology and thus as denoting whatever entities or sorts of entities uniquely realise the theory.

Then if certain neural states do so too as we believe then the mental states must be these neural states. In his he allows for tact in extracting a consistent theory from common sense. One cannot uncritically collect platitudes, just as in producing a grammar, implicit in our speech patterns, one must allow for departures from what on our best theory would constitute grammaticality. A great advantage of this approach over the early identity theory is its holism. Two features of this holism should be noted.

One is that the approach is able to allow for the causal interactions between brain states and processes themselves, as well as in the case of external stimuli and responses. Another is the ability to draw on the notion of Ramseyfication of a theory. Take the terms describing behaviour as the observation terms and psychological terms as the theoretical ones of folk psychology. Then Ramseyfication shows that folk psychology is compatible with materialism.